Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, Levinson’s Theory of Life Structure and Arnett’s “Emerging” Adulthood
The first theory is Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory which has eight stages or a “crisis” for the person to solve. Young adults fall into the stage of intimacy vs. isolation. This is a “time when individuals move from the identity fragmentation, confusion and exploration of adolescence into more intimate engagement with significant others”, according to Hutchinson siting Erikson on page 276. The question for people during this time is “Will I be loved or will I be alone?” Cultural shifts in communication and expectations have somewhat altered the timing of this question. Globally, the median age for first marriage has risen. This is due to many factors, including women putting off getting married in order to focus on their career and also not being able to find partners who would like to settle down. Social networking has also changed a great deal, particularly in the last few decades. With the advent of sites like: Facebook, MySpace, LinkedIn, Twitter and Vine, which can appear as if other people in young adults’ lives are moving on an up while the person in question feels rather stagnant in life. This can lead to depression and even suicide. The goal for this stage in Erikson’s theory is love. A person who is not able to properly connect with someone during this time while preserving their individuality can end up feeling disconnected and alone.
The second theory is Levinson’s Theory of Life Structure which is based on interviews with men about their adult experiences; Levinson did include women at a later date (Hutchinson, 2011, p. 276). He compiled this research to come up with the concept of the life structure. It is defined as “the outcome resulting from specific decisions and choices made along the life course in such areas as relationships, occupation and childbearing”(Hutchinson, 2011, p.276) The novice phase of adulthood he considered to be between ages 17-33. The transition into adulthood begins at ages 17-22 with preliminary decisions being made about relationships, careers and belief systems. By age 30, the person has transitioned into full adulthood and has made decisions that have a significant impact on the life course trajectory. The main focus for Levinson was on relationships (much like Erikson) and work. There are a number of mitigating factors in the decisions that people make during this time: Socioeconomic status, parental expectations, availability of interaction with adult roles models, neighborhood conditions, and community and peer group pressures are just a few. Rumbaut argues that: “As post-secondary educational attainment has become critical to social mobility for young adults, incarceration(men) and early childbearing(women) have emerged as turning points that can derail life course trajectories by disrupting educational and occupational opportunities” (Rumbaut p.1043). Social workers need to help explore resources for overcoming any negative factors/influences when dealing with young adults. Social workers are also there to help navigate any life roles that could be contending with one another. For example, renegotiating family and work responsibilities as parenthood approaches.
The third theory is Arnett’s “Emerging” Adulthood. Arnett describes it as “a developmental phase distinct from both adolescence and young adulthood” Hutchinson quoting Arnett page 277 of the text. It occurs between ages 18-25 in most industrialized nation, with full transition made by the age of 30 (similar to Levinson’s theory). This theory based on research where young people were asked whether they believed they were adults. The majority of people 30 and over believed they had achieved adulthood whereas those 18-25 did not think they had. In Arnett’s theory, adolescence is no longer the time for experimentation, young adulthood now has that focus. People experiment with social and economic roles during this time. The goal at the end of this stage is to solidify role commitments. The “emerging” adults before their 30’s are building careers and exploring options for work. People in their 30’s are more likely to have stabilized in their career field and are growing in it. This is also a time for people to experiment in love and relationships. The first part in “emerging” adulthood is about a lack of commitment in to social institutions. Young people are moving away from their families of origin and creating their own identities. Marriage has traditionally been the most significant marker of adulthood, however, that has recently been replaced with financial independence/stability and responsibility for decision making due to cultural shifts in expectations. Arnett also defines this time as having a crisis (much like Erikson) of default individualization vs. developmental individualization. Default individualization is a pathway whereby adulthood transitions are defined by circumstance and situation, rather than by person agency. Those that follow the developmental individualization pathway transition into adulthood by personal agency and make deliberate decisions in their intellectual, occupational and psychosocial domains.
It is also a concern in young adulthood that as the age at first marriage and childbearing has increased, this has created a shift in the care for elder members of the family. Young adults are often caught in a “sandwich”, caring for their young children and also caring for their grandparents and /or their parents. Contingent on when the elder family member begins to require care, this can make for a lot less “emerging” time for the young adults. This would mean less time to experiment and explore options and may hinder separation from family of origin. This can create less time to form separate family units and also make finances less stable.
The third theory is Arnett’s “Emerging” Adulthood. Arnett describes it as “a developmental phase distinct from both adolescence and young adulthood” Hutchinson quoting Arnett page 277 of the text. It occurs between ages 18-25 in most industrialized nation, with full transition made by the age of 30 (similar to Levinson’s theory). This theory based on research where young people were asked whether they believed they were adults. The majority of people 30 and over believed they had achieved adulthood whereas those 18-25 did not think they had. In Arnett’s theory, adolescence is no longer the time for experimentation, young adulthood now has that focus. People experiment with social and economic roles during this time. The goal at the end of this stage is to solidify role commitments. The “emerging” adults before their 30’s are building careers and exploring options for work. People in their 30’s are more likely to have stabilized in their career field and are growing in it. This is also a time for people to experiment in love and relationships. The first part in “emerging” adulthood is about a lack of commitment in to social institutions. Young people are moving away from their families of origin and creating their own identities. Marriage has traditionally been the most significant marker of adulthood, however, that has recently been replaced with financial independence/stability and responsibility for decision making due to cultural shifts in expectations. Arnett also defines this time as having a crisis (much like Erikson) of default individualization vs. developmental individualization. Default individualization is a pathway whereby adulthood transitions are defined by circumstance and situation, rather than by person agency. Those that follow the developmental individualization pathway transition into adulthood by personal agency and make deliberate decisions in their intellectual, occupational and psychosocial domains.
It is also a concern in young adulthood that as the age at first marriage and childbearing has increased, this has created a shift in the care for elder members of the family. Young adults are often caught in a “sandwich”, caring for their young children and also caring for their grandparents and /or their parents. Contingent on when the elder family member begins to require care, this can make for a lot less “emerging” time for the young adults. This would mean less time to experiment and explore options and may hinder separation from family of origin. This can create less time to form separate family units and also make finances less stable.